From: sciguy@vex.net (Paul E. J. King)
Newsgroups: sci.bio.food-science,sci.answers,news.answers
Subject: [sci.bio.food-science] Welcome - Read this First! (FAQ 2/3)
Followup-To: poster
Organization: none
Approved: news-answers-request@mit.edu
Summary: Answers to legal, science, health, and industry questions
         concerning food science. Also has a list of abbreviations of
         significance to food science. Persons wishing to post to
         sci.bio.food-science are advised to read this FAQ first.

Archive-Name: sci/food-science-faq/part2

Posting-Frequency: biweekly
Last-modified: 2007/12/03

RE-POST: FAQ  2/3- SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions

See 1/3 See this part for a list of food science related sites and a
list of abbreviations.

See 3/3 for general questions and answers about food science.

*****************************************************************************

IV.DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF FOOD RELATED TERMS

         In the following list of definitions of food-related words and
    phrases, some of the items relate to the requirements under UK and/or
    European laws, regulations or Codes of Practice. In the near future
    anther list will be given referring to the requirements under US laws
    and regulations, and, in time, those of other countries.

         Any questions or comments about these definitions and
    interpretations should be directed to: <jralphb@easynet.co.uk

    INTRODUCTION

         In 1987, the Technical and Legislative Committee (TLC) of the
    Institute of Food Science & Technology, conscious that many
    descriptions of, or claims about, foods were made using ill-defined
    terms which were potentially misleading, set out to remedy that
    situation. Making use both of published material and the expertise of
    the Committee, it prepared and issued objective "definitions" for
    certain key words, a few of which were not considered potentially
    confusing but merely useful to include.

         The intention was not strict definitions in the dictionary
    sense. Some were accounts or interpretations of the limitations
    within which the use of a particular term was justified. Moreover,
    the intention was not to produce a comprehensive dictionary of
    food-related terms, but rather a guide to food scientists and
    technologists, and others professionally concerned with descriptions
    of foods, particularly in labelling and advertising. In 1989, the
    list was expanded and published in Food Science & Technology Today 3
    (2), 128-9.

         In the period since that publication, some of those terms have
    been "officially" defined in legislation, official guidelines or
    Codes of Practice - and it is gratifying to note the extent to which
    these follow the lines of the definitions in the 1989 document. In
    the same period, members of IFST and of the Association of Public
    Analysts have suggested additional terms that are in common usage but
    are ill-defined or sometimes misused. Accordingly, the two
    professional bodies have decided to produce jointly an updated list.

         The list given here includes some terms that were in the 1989
    list (in some cases modified or updated); and some terms that have
    been defined in the interim in legislation or in codes or guides.
    Many of the terms listed here have wider connotations in relation to
    which they may be defined or interpreted; but here it is only the
    food-related usage that is addressed.

         We draw attention to the category Marketing Terms at the end of
    this document, in which have been listed a number of terms often used
    without real meaning in relation to manufactured food products.

         As before, it is hoped that the use, by professionals, of these
    definitions and interpretations will help to minimise confusion and
    misleading use of the terms. With any such exercise, some readers
    will have differing views on individual items, or on the desirability
    of including other terms. IFST and APA will be glad to receive
    constructive comments from members, for consideration when this
    document is next revised and updated.

         Finally, it is pointed out that definitions other than those
    derived from EU or UK legislation, and all interpretations expressed
    here, are opinion, albeit opinion based on the views of the experts
    involved in their compilation. The information in this document may
    not be taken as binding on Public Analysts or enforcement authorities,
    and, in the event of dispute, only the courts can decide.

                                                          Malvern Barnett
                                                          J Ralph
Blanchfield

Adulteration

        The addition or contamination of a food by a substance foreign
   to the normal product, which debases it or disguises inferior 
   quality. See Unadulterated.

Botulinum Cook

         The heat treatment given to a low acid canned food (having 
    a pH higher than 4.2) sufficient to inactivate 1012 spores of 
    Clostridium botulinum. This heat treatment is called the Fo value 
    and it is equivalent to a process of 3 mins at 121 degC, 10 mins at 
    115 degC or 32 mins at 110 degC.

Biopolymer

         A compound consisting of repeating units of a single
    biologically produced molecule, either straight chain or branched,
    e.g. amylose, amylopectin and cellulose.

Biotechnology

         The application of biological science to the production,
    modification or processing of materials. It encompasses
    long-established activities such as traditional plant and animal
    breeding, brewing, bread-making and effluent treatment, and the more
    modern techniques of genetic modification and the use of fermentation
    technology for the production of some novel protein foods. Though
    meal preparation is arguably a form of biotechnology, it is already
    covered in other newsgroups, such as rec.cooking.* hierarchy.

Boiled

         Having been cooked in boiling water (or, by extension, by
    steaming, as in 'boil-in-the-bag').

Chilled food

         Perishable food which, to extend the time during which it
    remains wholesome, is kept within a specified range of temperature
    usually between 2 and 8 degC.

Chilled food chain

         The sequence of temperature controlled operations after initial
    harvesting, and including chilled transport, cooling during and after
    production, chilled storage, distribution and retailing, through to
    domestic storage until preparation for final consumption.

Comercial Sterility

         A sterile product is one free from viable microorganisms, i.e.
    those capable of reproducing under optimum conditions for growth.
    'Commercial sterility' is a term commonly used in the canning
    industry meaning the condition achieved by the application of heat
    sufficient to render the processed product free from viable
    microorganisms (including those of known public health significance),
    capable of growing in the food under normal non-refrigerated
    temperatures at which the food is likely to be held during
    distribution and storage.

Controlled atmosphere packaging

         A procedure whereby residual air in a food pack is replaced 
    by a gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, in order to minimise 
    deteriorative changes on storage. An example is the packaging of 
    peanuts in an atmosphere of nitrogen to inhibit rancidity.
         Where food has been packed in this way in order to increase 
    shelf life, the Food Labelling Regulations 1996 require the 
    statement 'packaged in a protective atmosphere' to appear on the 
    label. 

Convenience food

         A manufactured product requiring little or no preparation (other
    than heating, diluting or dissolving in water, where appropriate)
    before consumption.

Cooked

         Having been subjected to a heating process sufficient to render
    the food suitable for consumption.

Critical control point

         Any point in a specific food system where loss of control may
    result in an unacceptable risk.

Crude fibre

         The structural component of the plant cell wall being the
    residue obtained after consecutive acid and alkali digestion of a
    food or food material. Crude fibre is determined for nutritional
    declarations on animal feeding stuffs and also for defining brown
    bread in the Bread and Flour Regulations 1984.

Dairy

         When used as a descriptive term for food, refers exclusively to
    milk and milk products. In the EU its use is legally governed by
    Council Regulation 1898/87 on the Protection of Designations used in
    the marketing of Milk and Milk Products, as supplemented by
    Commission Decision 888/566/EEC. Help in interpreting some of these
    provisions was given by a MAFF Guidance Note (November 1989). The
    Council Regulation was subsequently implemented by the UK in the Milk
    and Milk Products (Protection of Designations) Regulations 1990.

Dairy-free (Non-dairy)

         A description that may be applied to a food that is free from 
    milk products and also from milk derivatives such as lactose, 
    caseinate and whey powder.

Dehydrated (food)

         Food or food products from which all but a small percentage of
    the water has been removed under controlled conditions.

Designer food(s)

         See Functional Foods and Marketing Terms.

Disinfection

         The application of effective chemical or physical agents or
    processes to a cleaned surface or to a water supply to reduce the
    number of microorganisms to a level consistent with good hygiene
    practice.

Dietary fibre

         In scientific terms, dietary fibre is a mixture of components
    derived from plant cell wall material and non-structural
    polysaccharides, as well as non-starch polysaccharides added to
    foods. It includes non-digestible polysaccharides such as cellulose,
    hemicelluloses, gums, pectins, mucilages and lignin. From a nutrition
    point of view, some authorities also include 'resistant starch' (i.e.
    starch that is resistant to enzymic degradation, usually as a result
    of processing).

         Currently, there is no universally accepted method for
    determination of dietary fibre. For some years the UK Ministry of
    Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has adopted the definition,
    for the purposes of label declaration, that dietary fibre is
    non-starch polysaccharides as determined by the Englyst method; but
    in Guidelines issued in March 1994, MAFF indicated that analysts may
    use any other methods which give similar results. The Englyst method
    excludes resistant starch. Most EU countries and the USA use the AOAC
    Prosky method. This method includes resistant starch and the value
    for dietary fibre obtained is therefore invariably higher than that
    by the Englyst method. It should be noted, however, that no
    recognised analytical method fully corresponds to biological
    performance.

Emulsion

         A term descriptive of a food or food material consisting of a
    stable blend of two or more otherwise immiscible liquids, usually an
    oil and an aqueous phase, achieved by appropriate physical means and
    usually with the incorporation of emulsifying and stabilising agents.

Enriched

         See "fortified foods"

Fast Food

         This term is not descriptive of food per se, but categorises a
    type of catering outlet, providing, within seconds of being ordered,
    counter delivery of freshly-prepared food items capable of being
    eaten without cutlery. This delivery is mainly dependent on
    scheduling based on accurate anticipation of fluctuating demand, a
    production system and staff capable of keeping pace with it, and
    sufficient counter servers to minimise queuing. Because some foods
    (e.g. burgers) have lent themselves more readily to this type of
    operation, the term has come to be applied to them too.

Fermentation

         The process of chemical change in animal or plant material,
    catalysed by enzymes of biological origin. It may be intended, as in
    brewing of beer or vinegar, or unintended and undesirable, as in food
    spoilage.

Fermented (food)

         Food material having been subjected to fermentation

Fibre

         Sometimes used synonymously with "dietary fibre" including in
    European and UK nutrition labelling legislation

Flavour/flavoured

         The term 'flavour' may have reference to sensory quality of 
    a food as perceived by a combination of smell and taste. 
    Alternatively, 'flavour', for which the legally correct term is 
    'flavouring', is defined in the Flavouring in Food Regulations 1992 
    as a material used to impart odour, taste or both to a food. Under 
    the UK Food Labelling Regulations 1996, if the declared flavour of 
    a product is derived wholly or mainly from the named food, the 
    product name is (for example) "Strawberry X". If it does not derive 
    wholly or mainly from the named food, the product name is 
    "Strawberry Flavour X".
         The UK Food Standards Committee's 2nd Report on Food Labelling 
    suggested that consumers do not appreciate the difference between 
    'flavour', which the FSC equated with artificial flavouring and 
    'flavoured' which they equated with the use of the real food to 
    provide flavouring.
         The UK Food Advisory Committee (FAC), in its 1990 Report on 
    Labelling, decided that the difference between 'flavour' and 
    'flavoured' was significant and that since consumers were said to 
    have difficulty distinguishing between the two, 'flavour' should be 
    banned and replaced by 'taste'.
         The supposed confusion between the two words is a misconception. 
    Contrary to paragraph 64 of the FAC Report, the then Food Labelling 
    Regulations 1984 as amended, and the current UK Food Labelling 
    Regulations 1996. make no provision for the use of the term 
    'flavoured'. As indicated above those Regulations provide for 
    (e.g.) 'Strawberry X' or 'Strawberry Flavour X' but no intermediate 
    designation such as ' strawberry flavoured X'.
         The only legal use of "flavoured" is in the Cocoa and Chocolate 
    Products Regulations 1976. In those Regulations, cocoa products and 
    non-filled chocolates may be described as 'Y flavoured chocolate', 
    as the case may be, if the flavour is derived wholly or mainly from Y.
         The term 'flavour' serves a useful and well-established 
    purpose. The FAC suggestion to prohibit it and substitute 'taste' 
    (reiterated in September 1994) is scientifically inaccurate and, 
    if it were to be embodied in legislation, would create instead of 
    removing confusion. 

Food

         In the UK Food Safety Act 1990, 'food' is defined as including 
    (a) drink; (b) articles and substances of no nutritional value which 
    are used for human consumption; (c) chewing gum and other products of 
    a like nature and use; and (d) articles and substances used as 
    ingredients in the preparation of food or anything falling within 
    this subsection. It does not include (a) live animals or birds, or 
    live fish which are not used for human consumption while they are 
    alive; (b) fodder or feeding stuffs for animals, birds or fish; (c) 
    controlled drugs within the meaning of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971; 
    and (d) subject to certain exceptions, medicinal products in respect 
    of which product licences or marketing authorisations are in force. 
    This definition states what 'food' includes and excludes (similarly 
    to the latter part of the Codex definition) but it is deficient in 
    failing to define what food is, i.e. does not specify "intended for 
    human consumption".
         The Codex Alimentarius defines 'food' as "any substance, 
    whether processed, semi processed or raw, which is intended for human 
    consumption and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which 
    has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of food, 
    but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances only used 
    as drugs".
         The EU Commission, in its November 2000 Proposal for a 
    Regulation laying down the general principles and requirements of 
    food law, establishing the European Food Authority, and laying down 
    procedures in matters of food, proposed the following definition:
         'Food' (or 'foodstuff') means any substance or product, whether 
    processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or 
    expected to be ingested by humans. It includes drink, chewing gum 
    and any substance intentionally incorporated into the food during 
    its manufacture, preparation or treatment. It includes water, without 
    prejudice to the requirements of Directives 80/778/EEC and 98/83/EC. 
    It shall not include:

         (a) feed;
         (b) live animals unless they are prepared, packaged and/or 
             served for human consumption;
         (c) plants prior to harvesting;
         (d) medicinal products within the meaning of Council Directive 
             65/65/EEC 17;
         (e) cosmetics within the meaning of Council Directive 76/768/EEC 
             18 ;
         (f) tobacco and tobacco products within the meaning of Council 
             Directive 89/622/EEC 19 ;
         (g) narcotic or psychotropic substances within the meaning of 
             the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 
             1961 and the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic 
             Substances, 1971.

Food hygiene

         All environmental factors, practices, processes and precautions
    involved in protecting food from contamination by any agency, and
    preventing any organism present from multiplying to an extent that
    would expose consumers to risk or result in premature spoilage or
    decomposition of food.

Fortified (food)

         Three separate circumstances may be defined: Restored, enriched,
    and fortified foods, as described here:

         Restore

               the addition of nutrients to foods in order to restore the
         level of those nutrients that were originally present, but have
         been destroyed or lost in processing.

         Enrich

               The addition to a food of one or more nutrients which were
         already present in that food in lower than desirable amounts.

         Fortify

               The addition to a food of significant quantities of a
         nutrient that was not originally present in that food or was
         present only in nutritionally insignificant amount.

Free from ....

         For food to be described as 'free from X' (or by terms having a
    similar import) the food, at the point of sale, must be either free
from
    X when tested by a standard reference method of analysis or it must
    contain no more than a specified maximum of X.

Free from added ....

         If a food in its original state contains X, it may be described as
    'free from added X' (or by terms having a similar import) only if no X
    has been introduced, directly or indirectly, via any ingredient or
    during production, manufacture, processing, packaging, storage,
    distribution or point of sale. MAFF Guidelines (1993) specify that 'no
    added sugar' means that no sugars, or foods composed mainly of sugars,
    should be added to a food or any of its ingredients; and that 'no added
    salt' means that no salt or sodium compounds should be added to the
food
    or to any of its ingredients.

         It should be noted, however, that in the instance of a food which
    strictly complies with the foregoing but itself has a high sugar
content
    (for example date paste) the description 'no added sugar', though true,
    could be held to be misleading (Section 3(2) of the Trade Descriptions
    Act 1968).

Fresh

         The condition of a short shelf-life perishable unprocessed food
    prior to perceptible evidence of physical, chemical or microbiological
    change. Fresh is normally applied to unprocessed foods e.g. fresh eggs,
    fresh meat, showing that they are in their original state. It is also
    used in apparently contradictory terms, e.g. fresh pasteurised cream to
    distinguish it from more highly processed sterilised cream.

Functional

         Fulfilling a specific physical, chemical or biological function.

Functional food(s)

         All foods are functional, and to term some (as distinct from
    others) as 'functional' is illogical. The term is one of the
    marketing-coined names (others are 'neutraceuticals' and 'designer
    foods') to categorise foods which are considered or claimed to offer
    specific health benefits while avoiding the requirement to be licensed
    medicines (See Marketing terms, below).

Genetic modification

         The process of making changes to the genes of an organism 
    (whether an animal or plant organism or a microorganism). Genetic 
    changes occur spontaneously in nature over a long period of time, but 
    they may be produced intentionally either by traditional methods of 
    selective breeding of animals and plants, or by modern methods of 
    removal or insertion of genes. The latter method involves four basic 
    steps;

         1. the DNA of a cell of the donor organism is broken down and 
            the pieces separated;
         2. the desired gene is selected;
         3. that gene is copied many times; and
         4. nth generation laboratory copies (not the donor's original 
            genes) are then inserted into the DNA of the receiver organism.

    'Within-species' genetic modification is essentially similar to 
    traditional breeding methods (except that it is much speedier and 
    much less haphazard). Through 'trans-species' modification, results 
    are obtainable that could not be obtained by traditional breeding 
    methods. In relation to food, the potential scientific benefits of 
    genetic modification are:

         * Improved agricultural performance (yields) with reduced use 
           of pesticides
         * Ability to grow crops in inhospitable environments (e.g. via 
           increased ability of plants to grow in conditions of drought, 
           salinity and extremes of temperature
         * Delayed ripening, permitting improvements in quality and 
           processing advantages.
         * Altered sensory attributes of food (e.g. flavour, texture, etc.)
         * Improved nutritional attributes e.g. combatting anti-nutritive 
           and allergenic factors, and increased Vitamin A content in rice.
         * Improved processing characteristics leading to reduced waste 
           and lower food costs to the consumer.

    Some forms of trans-species modification may give rise to ethical and 
    religious issues. 
         See also FAQ in section V (including within-species and
    trans-species) Part 2, Q 7, 8, and 9

Genetically modified-See FAQ same sections as above

Genuine

         'Genuine' in connection with foods means an authentic type or
    source. It serves to distinguish ingredients which might otherwise be
    synthetic (e.g. 'vanilla ice cream, made with genuine vanilla') or it
    may establish the origin or type of a food (e.g. genuine Manzanilla
    olives, genuine Italian olive oil).

GMP

         'Good manufacturing practice' (GMP) is that part of a food control
    operation aimed at ensuring that products are consistently manufactured
    to a specified quality appropriate to their intended use. It thus has
    two complementary and interacting components; the manufacturing
    operation itself and the control system and procedures. Reference
should
    be made to the IFST publication 'Food and Drink - Good Manufacturing
    Practice: A Guide to its Responsible Management'. (3rd Edition, 1991).

HACCP

         Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive 
    system of food control. It involves

         1. Hazard analysis - examining and analysing every stage of 
            a food-related operation to identify and assess hazards 
            (q.v., below);
         2. determining the 'critical control points' (q.v., above) at 
            which action is required to control the identified hazards;
         3. establishing the critical limits that must be met at each 
            critical control point;
         4. establishing monitoring procedures;
         5. establishing corrective procedures when a deviation is 
            identified by monitoring;
         6. establishing verification procedures to demostrate that it 
            is working correctly.
         7. Establishing record-keeping and documentation.

    A few authoritative sources of information are:

         * "HACCP Systems and Guidelines" , CODEX Alimentarius, 1997.
         * Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and 
           Application Guidelines, (US) National Advisory Committee on 
           Microbiological Safety of Foods, 14 August 1997 
           http://www.fst.vt.edu/haccp97/
         * Food Safety and Inspection Service, US Department of 
           Agriculture, Pathogen Reduction/HACCP & HACCP Implementation 
           http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/haccp/imphaccp.htm
         * Canadian Food Inspection Agency 's Food Safety Enhancement 
           Program Web page of links at
           http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/english/ppc/haccp/haccp.html
         * A Simple Guide to Understanding and Applying the Hazard 
           Analysis Critical Control Point Concept. ILSI Europe, 1997. 
           http://www.ilsi.org/pubs/ilsihace.pdf

HAZOP

         Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is a systematic structured
    approach to questioning the sequential stages of a proposed operation
in
    order to optimise the efficiency and the management of risk. Thus, the
    application of HAZOP to the design of a proposed food-related
operation,
    should result in a system in which as many critical control points as
    possible have been eliminated, making the subsequent application of
    HACCP during subsequent operations much easier to carry out.

Hazard

         Any intrinsic property of a system, operation, material or
    situation that could, in certain circumstances, lead to an adverse
    consequence. In food terms, this particularly refers to an adverse
    consequence (health risk or loss by spoilage) to the consumer.

Health food

         This is essentially a marketing term, the meaning of which has
    never been clear. There is no legal basis and no evident objective
    justification for the term, which implies a superiority over foods not
    so described. So-called health foods fall into four main categories,
    namely

         1) products in respect of which there is adequate scientific
    substantiation for the specific permissible nutrition and/or health
    claims made, and which are labelled in accordance with relevant
    legislation;

         2) those in respect of which there is 'folklore' and some
    scientific evidence for the claims, but falling short of
substantiation;

         3) those making claims for which there is little or no scientific
    evidence;

         4) other products that are frequently sold in health food shops
    e.g. 'wholefoods' (q.v.).

         It should be noted that some products in categories 2 and 3 have
    given rise to concerns about their safety, which, in certain cases,
have
    led to prohibition.

Hermetically sealed container

         Strictly, an 'hermetically sealed container' is one that is sealed
    so as to be air-tight. Commercially sterile food products may be packed
    in non-metallic containers that are not completely air-tight. In the
    latter context, an 'hermetically sealed container' has been defined as
    one that is designed and intended to be secure against entry of
    microorganisms.

High in .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
    legally-specified minimum, or a legally-specified percentage increase
    compared with a product not making a "high in" claim for the parameters
    involved."

Higher in (increased) .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
    legally-specified percentage increase compared with a product not
making
    such a claim, for the parameter involved.

Home made

         This term has no defined meaning but it implies that a food has
    been prepared on a small scale, either on domestic premises or premises
    not associated with large scale manufacture.

Improved

         Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction with
    'new', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, including minor
    cosmetic changes, cost-cutting changes, and formulation changes to make
    the product more acceptable to purchasers. It is the latter case that
    most properly justifies the use of the term.

Instant

         This term is strictly justified only in the cases of dry powders
or
    mixes which rehydrate instantly, i.e. in a matter of a few seconds
(e.g.
    instant coffee, instant tea) and should be reserved for such speedy
    action. By extension, however, the term has sometimes been misused by
    applying it to dry mix products which rehydrate faster than some others
    but still take a few minutes rather than a few seconds. For the latter,
    a term such as 'rapid' would be more appropriate.

Irradiated

         Having been subjected to ionising radiation.

Isotonic

         A term applied to a liquid product, e.g. a drink, having osmotic
    properties approximating to those of blood serum, i.e. 280 milli-
    osmoles per kg. However, the EU Scientific Committee for Food's 
    February 2001 Report on Sports Drinks 
    http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out64_en.pdf includes

         "It has become common to refer to carbohydrate-electrolyte 
         sports drinks as isotonic drinks, as though the tonicity was 
         their most important characteristic. The osmolality of 
         ingested fluids is important as this can influence both the 
         rates of gastric emptying and of intestinal water flux: both 
         of these processes together will determine the effectiveness 
         of rehydration fluids at delivering water for rehydration. An 
         increasing osmolality of the gastric contents will tend to 
         delay emptying, and increasing the carbohydrate or electrolyte 
         content of sports drinks will generally result in an increased 
         osmolality. The composition of the drinks and the nature of 
         the solutes is, however, of greater importance than the 
         osmolality itself??." 

   and concludes:

         "Although most of the popular sports drinks are formulated to 
         have as close to that of body fluids [102] and are promoted as 
         isotonic drinks, there is good evidence that hypotonic solutions 
         are more effective when rapid rehydration is desired. Although 
         it is argued that a higher osmolality is inevitable when 
         adequate amounts of carbohydrate are to be included in sports 
         drinks, the optimum amount of carbohydrate necessary to improve 
         exercise performance has not been clearly established." 

Junk Food

         This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label 
    which has, for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast 
    food and all snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high 
    in fat and/or sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients. 
    However, there is no evidence that such foods are other than 
    acceptable as part of a balanced diet

Light/Lite

         These terms are used to signify a lower energy or lower fat
version
    of a particular food, [and therefore should comply with conditions
    applying to a reduced .... claim. (see Reduced .......)]. That would
    imply at least 25% reduction of the norm, but some opinion holds that
it
    should mean at least 50% reduction.

Low calorie/low energy

         A description which may be applied to foods which, when ready for
    consumption, have an energy value no greater than 167 kJ (40 kcal) per
    100 g (for the purposes of theUK Food Labelling Regulations 1984,
    intense sweeteners and similar products are exempted from this limit).

Low in .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
    legally-specified maximum or a legally-specified percentage reduction
    compared with a product not making a 'low in' claim for the parameters
    involved.

Manufacture

         The complete cycle of production of a food product from the
    acquisition of all materials, through all stages of subsequent
    processing, packaging and storage, to the despatch of the finished
    product.

Meat

         'Meat' means the flesh, including fat and the skin, rind, gristle
    and sinew in amounts naturally associated with the flesh, of any animal
    or bird which is normally used for human consumption, but including
only
    those parts of the carcase listed in Part I of Schedule 2 of the UK
Meat
    Products and Spreadable Fish Products Regulations 1984.
         Note that from 1 January 2003 EU Member States will have to 
    give effect to a Directive amending Directive 2000/13/EC, limiting 
    the definition of "meat" to skeletal-attached muscle plus not more 
    than 25% muscle-adhering fat and connective tissue (not more than 
    10% in the case of birds and rabbits), requiring systematic 
    indication of the species from which the meat comes, and excluding 
    "mechanically separated meat" from the definition.

Natural

         The extensive use of 'natural' in labelling and advertising arises
    from a public misconception, that 'natural' necessarily means 'safe',
    healthy', 'nutritious' (in contrast to its perceived opposites,
    'unnatural', 'unsafe', 'chemical', 'processed', etc). The consequent
    marketing view that 'natural' should be used wherever possible to
    reassure those fearing adverse effects of 'unnatural' foods, resulted
in
    widespread indiscriminate use of 'natural' despite the efforts of food
    scientists and technologists in industry and enforcement to restrict
its
    use to justifiable cases. Although based on a misconception of the
    significance of 'natural', if some consumers wish to select foods which
    are 'natural', they are entitled to information that is meaningful and
    not misleading.
         In 1989 MAFF published FAC guidelines on the detailed conditions
    and circumstances in which the use of 'natural' or similar terms) was
    justified. In summary these were (a) to describe single foods of a
    traditional nature to which nothing has been added and which have been
    subjected only to such processing as to render them suitable for human
    consumption.; (b) to describe food ingredients obtained from recognised
    food sources, and which meet the criteria in (a); (c) to describe
    flavouring substances (but see 'natural flavouring', below) or
permitted
    food additives obtained from recognised food sources by appropriate
    physical processes or traditional food preparation processes. The
    reference in (a) to 'a traditional nature' was intended to exclude
foods
    such as mycoprotein which may be products of natural sources but were
    not considered by FAC to accord with the public perception of
'natural'.
    Compound food should not be described as 'natural' but could be
    described as 'made from natural ingredients' if all of the ingredients
    comply with (b) or (c). In the cases of foods not complying with the
    above criteria, 'natural' or its derivatives should not be used in
brand
    or fancy names or incorporated in meaningless copy. Phrases such as
    'naturally good', naturally better', etc should be avoided.
         At the time IFST urged that the abuse of the term was such that
    these conditions should be embodied in legislation, but Ministers
    decided otherwise. Nevertheless, although these conditions do not have
    de jure force of law, enforcement authorities and courts can use them
as
    yardsticks in assessing whether a particular usage is misleading; so to
    that extent they have de facto legal force.
         However, see also the FAC Review of the use of the terms Fresh, 
    Pure, Natural etc. in Food Labelling 2001, in connection with which 
    the UK Food Standards Agency has announced an intention to legislate
    www.foodstandards.gov.uk/press_releases/uk_press/2001/pr010725.htm

Natural flavouring

         The UK Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994 now
    provides a legal definition to supersede that provided in relation to
    flavourings in the FAC Guidelines on the use of the word 'natural'. It
    provides that a 'natural' flavouring may be obtained from vegetable or
    animal material by enzymatic or microbiological methods as well as
    physical ones; and that if the name of the flavouring refers to its
    vegetable or animal origin, it can only be designated 'natural' if it
is
    derived wholly or mainly from the named vegetable or animal source.

Nature-Identical

         a term applied to flavouring substances or mixtures thereof that
    have been synthesised or isolated from aromatic raw materials but are
    chemically identical with substances found in natural products used for
    human consumption - in the US this is otherwise known as "Artificial
    flavor".

New

         Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction with
    'improved', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, ranging from
a
    minor formulation or packaging change from a previously marketed
product,
    through a product that is new to the manufacturer but very similar to
    products already on the market, to a product that is really innovative.
    How long can a product labelled 'New' continue to be so labelled? There
    is no official answer, and it is extremely difficult to give one. This
    is because a new product may be subjected to test marketing in a
    particular part of the country, and then 'rolled out' progressively
    until it reaches national distribution, perhaps taking up to two years
    in doing so. A maximum of one year from national distribution seems a
    reasonable limit.

Novel (food, process)

         Food or food ingredients produced from raw material that has not
    hitherto been used (or has been used only to a small extent) for human
    consumption in the area of the world in question, or that is produced
by
    a new or extensively modified process not previously used in the
    production of food. A question open to debate is "At what point does a
    novel food (e.g. mycoprotein), having come on the market and being
    fairly widely consumed, cease to be a novel food?"

         Any person or company contemplating marketing in the UK a novel
    food or one containing a novel ingredient should make a prior
submission
    to the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP).

Nutraceutical

         See Functional food.

Organic

         (See FAQ part 1, No. 20 for comparisons between organic and
    other foods)
         Organic food can be defined as "the product of a farming system 
    which avoids the use of man-made fertilisers, pesticides, growth 
    regulators and livestock feed additives. Instead the system relies 
    on crop rotation, animal and plant manures, some hand weeding and 
    biological pest control". This definition serves to distinguish 
    the use of the word 'organic' in this context from its more 
    traditional scientific meaning as a description of a 
    carbon-containing molecule. 'Organic' is the description used only 
    in English-speaking countries; in other markets 'Bio' , 'Oko' or 
    'Eco' are appropriate. The Organic Products Regulations 1992 as 
    amended implement EU Council Regulation EEC No 2091/91 (as 
    amended in 1995) on organic production of agricultural products 
    and foodstuffs. The use of the word 'organic' is restricted to 
    agricultural crops and livestock and products made from them, in 
    compliance with the detailed provisions of Annexes I, II and III 
    of the Council Regulation.
         Organic processed foods are labelled depending on the 
    proportion of organic ingredients present:

         * Category 1: Product contains a minimum of 95% organic 
           ingredients by weight. Product can be labelled 'Organic' 
           eg Organic Cornflakes
         * Category 2: Product contains 70 - 95% organic ingredients 
           by weight. Product can be labelled 'Made with Organic 
           Ingredients' eg Tomato Ketchup made with Organic Tomatoes.

    Regulation 2092/91 as amended contains a list of the non-organic 
    ingredients which can be included in an otherwise organic food - 
    for example water, salt, permitted food additives, processing 
    aids, carrier solvents and flavourings. The Regulations also 
    specifically exclude the use of irradiated or genetically 
    modified (GM) ingredients in organic food.
         Throughout the EU each member state has a national Control Body. 
    In the UK it is UKROFS, (The Register of Organic Food Standards) 
    which regulates the activities of six UK Certification Bodies, who 
    are the organisations charged with inspecting and regulating UK 
    organic producers and manufacturers. The largest Certification Body 
    is the Soil Association, which currently undertakes 80% of all 
    certification in the UK. The other UK Certification Bodies are 
    Organic Farmers & Growers, Scottish Organic Producers Association, 
    Demeter, Organic Food Federation (OFF) and Irish Organic Farmers & 
    Growers Association. Other prominent EU certification bodies 
    include Ecocert (France), Naturland (Germany) and Skal (Holland), 
    whilst OCIA, OGBA, QAI and FVO are the prominent certification 
    bodies in the USA. The production of organic food requires the same 
    involvement of professional food scientists and technologists and 
    is subject to the same requirements of good manufacturing practice 
    and food safety as the rest of the food industry, but is also subject 
    to specific additional legal requirements as to cultivation, 
    composition and labelling.

Original

         This adjective may be justified in respect of a well established
    product, to distinguish it from subsequent variants marketed by the
    manufacturer. Likewise it could be used in respect of a product which
    was first in the marketplace to distinguish it from subsequent 'me-too'
    imitations.

Probiotic

         This term, as a noun or adjective, has previously been used to
    refer to 'microorganisms and substances which contribute to the
    intestinal microbial balance'. However, the inclusion of 'substances'
    created the paradox that antibiotics could be probiotics if they were
    specific enough to destroy harmful bacteria thereby restoring the
    intestinal microbial balance. Accordingly, it is now suggested that
    'probiotic' should be taken to refer to 'a live microbial preparation,
    either as a food or animal feed, which can benefit the host through
    restoring its intestinal microbial balance'.

         The microorganisms most commonly involved as probiotics are the
    Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, Streptococci and some yeasts and moulds.
    Probiotic preparations may have one or a mixture of organisms of
various
    genera, species, sub-species or strains, and may take a variety of
    physical forms.

         There is conflicting evidence, and controversy, about the extent
to
    which colon flora can be influenced by oral administration of the
    various microorganisms involved, at the levels found in conventional
    foods.

Processed

         Having been subjected to treatment designed to change one or more
    of the properties (physical, chemical, microbiological, sensory) of
    food.

Processing aid

         In the UK Food Labelling Regulations 1984, 'processing aids' are
    not separately defined; but the definition of 'additive' 'includes
    processing aids insofar as they added to, or used in or on, food'. It
    follows that a processing aid is an additive which facilitates
    processing without significantly influencing the character or
properties
    of the finished product. Examples would be a tablet release agent used
    to coat the inside of tablet moulds, or a spray used to allow bread to
    be released from baking tins or trays. There are, however, anomalous
    instances. For example, if an anti-caking agent is added to a powder
    ingredient to facilitate its flow properties while being conveyed to a
    mixer, where it is incorporated into a liquid product or a dough for
    baking, the anti-caking agent is used solely as a processing aid, and
    hence need not be declared. If however, that powder ingredient is
    directly packed into containers for sale as such, or is incorporated in
    a dry mix product, the anti-caking agent is not acting solely as a
    processing aid and must be declared as an additive.

Pure

         This word is used as a marketing term, and is usually applied to a
    single ingredient with no additions, e.g. pure vegetable oil, pure
    orange juice, whether in the form of a single ingredients food or when
    used as a major ingredient of a compound food.

Quality

         When applied meaningfully to the character of a food, 'quality'
may
    refer to (a) the degree or standard of excellence; or (b) the fitness
    for purpose; or (c) the consistency of attainment of the specified
    properties of the food. In the context of food control, it is meaning
    (c) that applies.

         The term is sometimes used in a meaningless marketing sense (e.g.
    'X is a quality product').

Raw

         In the earliest or primary state, after harvesting or slaughter,
    not having been subjected to any treatment apart from cleaning, size
    grading or size reduction, (e.g. diced raw vegetables, raw minced
beef).

         Some ingredients termed 'raw materials' may actually be 'raw'.
    Often, however, one manufacturer's starting materials are other
    manufacturers' finished products; and a more accurate description would
    be 'starting materials'.

Real

         A marketing term, used normally to emphasise the presence of an
    authentic ingredient in a product, as distinct from a substitute (e.g.
    biscuits with a real chocolate coating).

         See also Genuine.

Re-formed

         'Re-formed' meat is an artefact having the appearance of a cut,
    joint, slice or portion of meat, formed by combining pieces of meat
    which have undergone processes generally including tumbling or
massaging
    or specific alignment of fibres, with or without the addition of finely
    comminuted meat and/or meat emulsion, and then forming in moulds or
into
    shapes. Codes of Practice exist for the labelling of cured meat
products
    and quick frozen meat products respectively, made from re-formed meats.

Reduced ...

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing,
    legally-specified percentage reduction compared with a product not
    making a ""reduced" claim, for the parameter involved.

Restore

         See Fortified (foods).

Rich in ...

         See High in ...

Risk

         The probability that a particular adverse consequence results 
    from a hazard within a stated time under stated conditions. "Risk 
    assessment" should take account of both the probability of 
    occurrence and its seriousness if it occurs. See Hazard and Risk 
    Analysis.

Risk Analysis

         This comprises risk assessment, risk management and risk 
    communication. Risk assessment requires expertise both in the 
    product or process in which the risk has been identified, and in 
    modern risk assessment techniques. While experts also have a 
    responsibility to contribute to risk management (i.e. the action 
    to be taken in relation to the assessed risk), it is not the 
    province of experts alone; in relation to a product or process 
    within a food operation, it is the responsibility of top 
    management; in the wider context of food legislation it is the 
    responsibility of the appropriate governmental authority after 
    consultation. Consultation is part of the process of risk 
    communication, which should take place both before and after 
    risk management. 

Selected

         Primarily a marketing term, implying superior quality. It should
    not be used unless it can be substantiated that the product quality has
    been enhanced by an actual selection process.

Sensory

         Relating to the use of the sense organs. (Note the distinction
from
    'organoleptic' 'relating to an attribute of a product perceptible by
the
    sense organs')..

         BS 5098 (identical with ISO 5492: 1992) entitled 'Sensory Analysis
    Vocabulary' provides an extensive and authoritative set of definitions
    of terms relating to sensory analysis.

Snack

         A small quantity of food, eaten informally between, or in place
of,
    main meals.

Snackfood (Snack food)

         A convenient food item specifically manufactured for use as a
    snack.

Spoilage

         Any perceivable change undergone by a food, through any cause,
that
    renders it unwholesome or unacceptable for use. Spoilage is usually the
    result of enzyme or microbial action resulting, for example, in
    lipolytic rancidity, putrefaction, fermentation, or mould growth; but
    food can also spoil by other means, for example overlong storage,
    non-enzymic browning, or exposure to air or light. In practice the term
    is most frequently applied to categorising such deteriorative changes
    (other than food infection or intoxication) when caused by
    microorganisms.

Steak

         'Steak' has, in the past, been taken to mean a cut or thick slice
    from the beef animal. However, a judgement in the Court of Appeal in
    1986 allowed a re-formed product to be called 'Chicken Breast Steaks
    Flaked and Formed Chicken in a Crispy Crumb' on the grounds that the
    description of the product, as a whole, was clear, accurate and not
    misleading. This judgement, therefore, means that 'steak' can be used,
    provided that it is properly qualified, as a generic term, probably in
    relation to any animal, bird or fish normally used for human
consumption,
    and whether or not the meat has been re-formed.

Traditional

         One way of defining 'traditional' in relation to foods and food
    processes is to say it is the opposite of 'new' or 'modern' (cf. the
    FAC's use of 'traditional' with the intention to exclude novel foods,
    see 'natural', above). It can also be applied to a particular
    characteristic of a food; for example 'traditional flavour', 'made in
    the traditional way'. This leaves unresolved, however, the question "at
    what point does yesterday's 'new' or 'modern' become today's
    'traditional'?". One suspects that for each generation, 'traditional'
    means anything up to and including the foods and methods of one's early
    youth! For some, 'traditional' appears to mean rule-of-thumb
craft-based
    rather than based on science/technology.

Unadulterated

         A food material containing no additions or contaminants foreign to
    the normal product which otherwise would debase it or confer or
disguise
    inferior quality.

Wholefood

         Any food which contains all its naturally occurring components,
    (e.g. pulses, raw vegetables) and without the addition of other
    substances. A wholefood can be a mixture of wholefoods.

Wholesomeness

         'Wholesomeness' is a convenient single term which embodies a large
    number of aspects and attributes of a food. In summary, a wholesome
food
    is one that satisfactorily meets the expectations of the segment of
    consumers at which it is aimed; and that has been made, stored and
    handled in compliance with any relevant legislative standards and with
    all of the principles of good manufacturing practice.

         Full consideration of these characteristics is given in IFST
    Professional Conduct Guideline 'Wholesomeness of Food'. This relates to
    a clause in the Code of Professional Conduct, requiring each member "to
    take legitimate steps through proper channels to ensure (or assist in
    ensuring) the wholesomeness of any food with which he or she is
    concerned".

MARKETING TERMS

         When used in the labelling, advertising or description of a food,
    the main (and sometimes total) role of the terms listed under this
    heading is to promote the sale of the product rather than provide
    necessary information to the purchaser. Terms often falling into this
    category include 'health food', 'designer food', 'functional food',
    'improved', 'natural', 'new', 'pure', 'quality', 'selected',
    'traditional'.

         Food scientists and technologists who are in a position to advise
    on product labelling, advertising or promotional material should do
    their best to ensure that such terms are not used in ways that could
    mislead (see IFST Professional Guideline No 6 'Scientific Issues and
    Food Promotion').

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